EVOLUTION OF EUROPEAN FORTIFICATION IN 1850 – 1914

Authors

  • Leontiy VOITOVYCH PhD hab. (History), Professor, Head of the Department of History of Middle Ages and Byzantine Studies, Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9191-6537
  • Leonid KRYVYZIUK PhD (History), Associate Professor, Associate Professor of Military Training of Hetman Petro Sahaidachnyi National Army Academy, Ukraine https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9094-4061

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.24919/2519-058X.25.269539

Keywords:

фортифікація, бастіони, теналі, форти, фланкування, фугасні бомби, шрапнель, бетон, залізобетон, броньовані башти, оборона Галичини, тот-де-пони, Перемишль, Миколаїв, Верден, Намюр, Антверпен.

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to do research on the issues of the European fortification evolution during the period of understanding and giving up the dominant ideas of the bastion and polygonal defense systems of fortresses to the completion of preparations for World War I in the second half of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries. The research methodology is based on the use a set of methods: dialectical, analytical, historical, biographical, comparative. This methodological approach allowed to analyze and reveal the factors that influenced the evolution retrospectively (exhaustion of bastion defense system and solid fortress fence, the emergence of high-explosive bombs and the implementation of shooting from closed positions), new ideas for defense and fundamental changes in fortifications, use of concrete and reinforced concrete, machine guns), location, types and features of long-term fortifications and discussions around the principles of defense, creation of new infrastructure with a network of railways, highway and railway bridges. The scientific novelty of the obtained results consists in a comprehensive analysis of periodization of the European fortification evolution during the period under analysis. The main differences and borrowings among different national schools of fortification science, interaction within military and political coalitions, the impact of financial opportunities on projects and changes in political conditions (especially on the example of the Austro-Russian relations), as well as military intelligence activities, in particular “Riddles case”. The Conclusion. Under the influence of turbulent changes in the scientific and technological revolution in 1850 – 1914, the evolution of the European long-term fortification took place. There was a complete rejection of the bastion and polygonal defense systems, a solid fortress fence. New ideas for defense and principles of fortification change survived a few short, but intense periods. In 1850 – 1870 it was necessary to replace the solid fortress fence with a belt of forts, located at the distance of 600–800 m from each other. In 1870 – 1880 interim batteries appeared, in 1880 – 1886 the offensive period was characterized by the location of forts at the distance of 5–8 km from the core of the fortress, which were higher the ground level, with the use of poterne for protection of soldiers and warehouse. In 1886 – 1899 the use of high-explosive bombs led to an intensive search of shelter, which culminated in the last stage, in 1899  1914, in the appearance of concrete and reinforced concrete fortifications, armored rotary towers, etc., which was also encouraged by the introduction of firing from closed artillery positions.

References

Alent, A. (1805). Histoire du corps impérial du génie moderne jusqu’à la fin du règne de Louis XIV. Paris. [in French]

Auger, D. (1998). Vauban sa vie son oeuvre. Paris. [in French]

Auger, D. (2007). Bibliographie des ouvrages de Vauban ou concermant Vauban. Paris. [in French]

d’Aunay, A. (2007). Vauban, génie maritime. Gallimard. [in French]

Baczkowski, M. (2002). Awstro-Węgierska inwestycje militarne w Galicje w planach strategicznych Franza Conrada fon Hötzendofra [Avstro-Hungarian Military Investments in Galicia in the Strategic Plans of Franz Conrad fon Hötzendofr]. Śląsk, Polska, emigracja. Studia dedykowane prof. Andrzejowi Pilchowi. Ed. I. Poczyńska, (pp. 111–122). Kraków. [in Polish]

Baczkowski, M. (2004). Wartownie kolejowe w systemie obronnym Galicji [Railway Guardhouses in the Defensive System of Galicia]. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego. Prace Historyczne, 131, 127–135. [in Polish]

Barros, M., Salat, N. & Sarmat, T. (2006). Vauban, l’intelligence du territoire. Paris. [in French]

Bellamy, Ch. (1990). The Evolution of Modern Land Warfare: Theory and Practice. Routlege. [in English]

Benoit, G. (1921). Etude comparative des fortifications de Verdun et Metz. Revue du génie militaire. Paris, 1, 8–41, 113–137. [in French]

Benua. (1922). Dolgovremennaja fortifikacija wo wremja wojny [Long Term Fortification during the War]. Wоjenno-inzenernyj zarubeznik, 7–8, 1–27. [in Russian]

Blanchard, A. (1996). Vauban. Paris. [in French]

Blomfield, R. (1938). Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban. London. [in English]

Bogdanowski, J. (1966). Fortyfikacja austriacka na ziemiach polskich w latach 1850 – 1914 [Austrian Fortification on Polish Lands in the Years 1850 – 1914]. Studia i Materiały do Historii Wojskowości. Warszawa, 12(1), 72–96 [in Polish]

Bornecque, R. (1984). La France de Vauban. Paris. [in French]

Brialmont, H. A. (2010). Étude sur la defense des États et sur la fortification. Vol. 1–3. Bruxelles, 1863 [Kessinger Publishing LLC]. [in French]

Brialmont, H. A. (1884). La General comte Todleben. La sua vita e le sua opera. Brüssel. [in French]

Brialmont, H. A. (1885). La fortification du temps present. Vol. 1–2. Bruxelles. [in French]

Brunner von, M. (1909). Die beständige Befestigung: für die k. u. k. Millitärbilungsanstalten und zum Selbstunterrichte für Offiziere alter Waffen herausgegeben. Wien. [in German]

Djedyk, О. (2013). Galychyna u planach videnskykh strategiv: koncepcii, komunikacii tа foeryfikacii. Cytadelia. Lviv, 1(9), 20–30. [in Ukrainian]

Duffy, Ch. (1985). The Fortress in the Age of Vauban and Frederick the Great, 1660–1789. Vol. 2. London. [in English]

Наjsenjuk, V. (2017). Pochatok kincia. Moskwofily u Velykij vijni (1914 – 1918) [The Beginning of the End. Muscophiles in the Great War (1914–1918)]. Chernivci: Druk-Art. [in Ukrainian]

Halévy, D. (1924). Vauban. Buider of Fortresses. London. [in English]

Herbert, F. J. & Rothrock, G. A. (1990). Soldier of France: Sèbastien le Prestre de Vauban, 1633–1707. New York. [in English]

Hilbrand, E. (1975). Maximian Jozeph Erzgerzog von Österreich-Este. Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815 – 1950, (Bd. 5, s. 168). Wien. [in German]

Hogg, O. (1970). Artillery: its origin, heyday and decline. London, [in English]

Horev, L. (1955). Wojna 1853 – 1856 gg. i оborona Sevastopola [War 1853 – 1856 and Defense of Sevastopol]. Моskva. [in Russian]

Hoyer von, J. G. (1819). Die Verteidigung stärker cis der Angriff. Berlin. [in German]

Jean-Denis, G. G. (2010). Lepage Vauban and the french militart under Louis XIV. London. [in English]

Juschenko, М., Petryk, V. & Piniazko, Т. (2021). Мykolaiv-Rozvadivske peredmostove ukriplenja 1854 – 1914 rr. (Bruckenkopf Mikolajow–Rozwadow). Мykolaiv – fortecja na Dnistri. Zbirnyk маterialiv Міznarodnoi naukovoi konferencii (3–4 vеrеsnja 2021 r. м. Мykolaiv), (pp. 7–45). Lviv. [in Ukrainian]

Lagowski, А. N. (1939). Оborona Sеvastopola. Кrimskaja wojna 1854 – 1855 gg. [Defense of Sevastopol. The Crimean War 1854 – 1855]. Моskva. [in Russian]

Lampert, A. D. (1990). The Crimean War. Manchester: University Press. [in English]

Langins, J. (2004). Conserving the enlightenment: French military engineering from Vauban to the revolution. London: The MIT Press. [in English]

Lazard, P. (1934). Vauban, 1633 – 1707. Paris. [in French]

Le Brun, D. (2016). Vauban, l’inventeur de la France moderne. Paris. [in French]

Markus, G.(1984). Der Fall Redl. Wien–München. [in German]

Mary, L. (2007). Vauban, le maitre des forteresses. Paris. [in French]

Мil’shtejn, M. (1966). “Dеlo polkovnika Redlja” [“The Case of Colonel Redl”]. Vojenno-istoricheskiy zhurnal, 1, 47–56. [in Russian]

Mondésir de, P. (1909). La fortification cuirassée. Paris. [in French]

Monsaingeon, G. (2007). Les Voyages de Vauban. Marseille. [in French]

Monsaingeon, G. (2007). Vauban militaire très civil. Paris. [in French]

Montalеmbert de, M.-R. (1776). La fortification perpendiculaire. Paris. [in French]

Montalеmbert de, M.-R. (1786 – 1793). L’art défensif supérieur á l’offensif. Vol. 1–11. Paris. [in French]

Moritz, V. & Leidinger, H. (2012). Oberst Redl. Der Spionagefall, der Skandal, die Fakten. Wien. [in German]

Napoleon, Bonapart. (2003). О wojennom iskustwie. Izbrannyje proizwedenija [On the Art of War. Selected Works]. Моskva. [in Russian]

Nilus, А. А. (1904). Istoria materialnoj chasti artillerii [History of the Materiel of Artillery]. Sаnkt-Peterburg. [in Russian]

Oettingen von, M. (1894). Totleben, Franz Eduard Graf. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. Leipzig, 38, 403–408. [in German]

Оlejnikov, A. (2017). Оgon’ pо newidimoj celi. Wоjennо-promyszlennyj kurier. Моskva, 9(673), 8.03. [in Russian]

d’Orgeix, E., Sanger, V. & Virol, M. (2007). Vauban. La pierre et la plume. Paris. [in French]

Paddy, G. (2006). The Vauban fortifications of France. Oxford. [in English]

Parent, M. & Verroust, J. (1971). Vauban. Paris. [in French]

Parent, M. & Verroust, J. (1982). Vauban. Un encyclopédiste avant la lettre. Paris. [in French]

Parkes, O. (1973). British Battleskips. London, 246 p. [in English]

Potockij, S. (1911). Аvstro-Vengria. Voenno-geograficheskij ocherk i vooruzennye sily [Austria-Hungary. The Military Geographical Outline and Armed Forces]. Vojennaja encyclopedia, (vol. 1, pp. 71–85). Sankt-Peterburg. [in Russian]

Prost, P. (2007). Vauban: Le style de l’intelligence. Paris. [in French]

Pujo, B. (1991). Vauban. Paris. [in French]

Qeuvres. (1806). Qeuvres posthumes de Cormontaige. T. 1. Mémorial pour la fortification permanente et passagére. Paris. [in French]

Qeuvres. (1808). Qeuvres posthumes de Cormontaige. T. 2. Mémorial pour l’attaque des places. Paris. [in French]

Qeuvres. (1809). Qeuvres posthumes de Cormontaige. T. 3. Mémorial pour la défence des places. Paris. [in French]

Radetzky, J. (1858). Militärische Betrachtug der Lage Österreich. Denkschriften militärisch-politischen Inhalts aus dem handschriftlichen Nachlas des k. k. Österreichischen Feldmarschlls Grafen Rаdetzky, (ss. 423–451). Stuttgart–Ausburg. [in German]

Rauchensteiner, M. Redl Alfred. (2003). Neue Deutsche Biographie, 21, 244–245. [in German]

Rieger, А. (1885). Totleben u. Seiner Wirkens Bedeutung für die kriegskunst der Zukunst. Mittheilungen über gegenstände des Artillerie und geniewesens, (ss. 68–75). Wien. [in German]

Rüstow, F. W. (1843). Grunglinien zu einer Philosophie der Befeltigungen. Leipzig. [in German]

Rüstow, F. W. (1858). Militärisches Handwörterbuch. Leipzig. [in German]

Schilder, N. К. (2020). Graf Eduard Iwanowich Тоtleben, jеgо zizn’ i dejatelnost [The Count Eduard Iwanowich Totleben, his life and work]. Vol. 1–2. Sankt-Peterburg. [in Russian]

Schlosser, A. (1981). Johann Erzherzog von Österreich. Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. Leipzig, 14, 281–305. [in German]

Skrickij, N. V. (2006). Krimskaja wojna 1853 – 1856 gоdy [The Crimean War 1853 – 1856]. Моskva. [in Russian]

Stade A. (1869). Turkey and Crimean war: a narrative of historical events. London. [in English]

Staveshagen, W. (1910). Grundriss der befestigungslehre, sowie des verkehrs und nachrichtenwesens. 4 aufl. Berlin. [in German]

Suchoń, F. (2009). Brytyjskie strażnice kolejowe w Południowej Afryce 1900 – 1902. Infort, 22, 51–59 [in Polish]

Suchoń, F. & Olesiak, J. (2019). Zespol ufortyfikowannych strażnic kolejowych w Kamionce Wielkiej [A Complex of Fortified Railway Watchtowers in Kamionka Wielka]. Malopolska, (vol. XXI, pp. 89–107). Kraków. [in Polish]

Sweetman, J. (2015). Shrapnel Henry (1761–1842). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, (pp. 365–386). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [in English]

Sukhyj, O. (2003). Vіd rusofilstva dо moskvofilstva (rоsijskij chynnyk v gromadskij dumci tа suspilno-politychnomu zytti galyckikh ukrainciv v ХІХ stolitti [From Russophilism to Muscophilism (the Russian Factor in the Public opinion and socio-political life of Galician Ukrainians in the 19th century)]. Lviv. [in Ukrainian].

Tarle, Е. (1941, 1943). Кrimskaja wojna [The Crimean War]. Vol. 1. Моskva–Leningrad; Vol. 2. Моskva. [in Russian]

Тkachuk, P. (2021). Zаkryti artylerijski pozycii u praktyci fortyfikacii na pochatku Perszoi switovoi vijny [Closed Artillery Positions and Practical Fortifications at the Beginning of World War I]. Мykolaiv – fortecja na Dnistri. Zbirnyk маterialiv Міznarodnoi naukovoi konferencii (3–4 vеrеsnja 2021 r. м. Мykolaiv), (pp. 46–48). Lviv. [in Ukrainian]

Truttman, Ph. (2000). La barriére de fer: l’architecture des forts du général Séré de Riviéres, 1872–1914. Thionville. [in French]

Vauban de, S. (1793). Oeuvres militaires. Paris. [in French]

Vauban de, S. (1829). Traité le l’attaque des places. Paris. [in French]

Voban de, S. (1744). Kniga о atake i oborone krepostej [Fortress Attack and Defense Book]. Per. I. Remizowa. Sankt- Peterburg. [in Russian]

Vauban de, S. (1829). Traité de la défense. Paris. [in French]

Vauban de, S. (1841). Mémoires militaires. Paris. [in French]

Vauban and the French Mitary Under Louis XIV: An illustrated. History of Fortifications and Strategies. (2009). NcFarland. [in English]

Velichko, K. I. (1887). Оpyty strelby po bronewym baszniam w Buchareste w 1885 – 1886 g. [Shooting Experiments on Armored Turrets in Bucharest in 1885 – 1886]. Sаnkt-Peterrburg. [in Russian]

Velichko, K. I. (1888 – 1890). Issledowanie nowejszich sredstw оsady i оbоrоny suchoputnych krepostej. Inzenernyj zurnal, 12 (1888). Sаnkt-Peterburg; 1–10 (1889). Sаnkt-Peterburg. [Оtd. оttisk: Sаnkt-Peterburg, 1890]. [in Russian]

Velichko, K. I. (1892). Fortress defenses against accelerated attacks. St. Petersburg. [in Russian]

Velichko, K. I. (1910). Nowyje forty Аntwerpena [New Forts of Antwerp]. Inzenernyj zurnal. Sаnkt-Peterburg, 3, 46–47 [in Russian]

Velichko, K. I. (1922). Kreposti do i posle Mirovoj wojny 1914 – 1918 g.g. [Fortresses Before and After the World War 1914 – 1918]. Моskva. [in Russian]

Virol, M. (2003). Vauban: De la gloire du roi au service de l’État. Paris. [in French].

Vоban. (1912). Vоban [Vauban]. Wоjennaja Encyklopedja. Pоd red. К.I. Weliczko, (vol. 6, pp. 445–448). Sаnkt-Peterburg. [in Russian]

Voitovych, L. (2021). Zrada polkovnyka Redlja i obgovorenja Mykolaivskoi forteci u rosijskij vijskovij presi naperedodni Perszoi svotovoi vijny. Мykolaiv – fortecja na Dnistri. Zbirnyk маterialiv Міznarodnoi naukovoi konferencii (3–4 vеrеsnja 2021 r. м. Мykolaiv), (pp. 56–59). Lviv. [in Ukrainian]

Voitovych, L. (2022). Fortecja “Mykolaiv” u systemi оborony Halychyny u 1850 – 1914 rr. [The “Mykolaiv” Fortress in the Defense System of Galicia in 1850 – 1914]. Wijskowo-naukowyj wisnyk. Lviv, 37, 18–42. [in Ukrainian]

Vvon, P. (2003). Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, 1714 – 1800: Les illusions perdues. Paris. [in French]

Weigett, G. (1861). Die Belagerung von Sebastopol 1854 – 1856. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Thätigkeit der Artillerie lei derselben. Berlin. [in German]

Werner, I. & Werner, D. (2017). Die Belagerung von Sevastopol 1854 – 1855. Aachen. [in German]

Wurzbach, C. von. Hes, & die Freiherr von. (1862). Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich. 8 Theil, (ss. 415–423). Wien. [in German]

Zastrow von, A. (1854). Geschichte der bestäbefestigung. 3 Auf. Leipzig. [in German]

Zverev, B. I. (1956). Sеvastopolskaja оborona 1854 – 1855 [The Sevastopol Defense 1854–1855]. Моskva. [in Russian]

Zuborowski, M. (1978). Kleszcze. Encyklopedia techniki wojskowej [Encyclopedia of Military Technology], (p. 263). Warszawa. [in Poland]

Zurnal wojennych dejstwij. (2010). Zurnal wojennych dejstwij w Krimu, sentiabr–dekabr 1854 goda. [Journal of Military Operations in the Crimea, September-December 1854]. Sоst. А. V. Еfimov. Simferopol. [in Russian]

Zurnal wojennych dejstwij. (2016). Zurnal wojennych dejstwij w Krimu, janvar–аvgust 1855 gоdа. [Journal of Military Operations in the Crimea, January-August 1855]. Sost. А. V. Еfimov. Simferopol. [in Russian]

Downloads

Published

2022-12-29

How to Cite

VOITOVYCH, L. ., & KRYVYZIUK , L. . (2022). EVOLUTION OF EUROPEAN FORTIFICATION IN 1850 – 1914. EAST EUROPEAN HISTORICAL BULLETIN, (25), 80–91. https://doi.org/10.24919/2519-058X.25.269539

Issue

Section

Articles