THE DOWNFALL OF THE RUSSIAN AND THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EM-PIRES, BOLSHEVISM, THE MONARCHIST COUNTER-REVOLUTION AND THE FORMATION OF NEW SYSTEMS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN EUROPE, 1918 – 1920
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24919/2519-058x.15.204964Keywords:
the Downfall of the Russian and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchies, the Dissolution of the Russian and the Austro-Hungarian Empires, Bolshevism, the Russian and the Hungarian Soviet Republics, the Monarchist counter-revolution in Central and Eastern Europe, The Kingdom of Finland, Regent Baron Karl GusAbstract
aim of this article is to analyze the processes of the revolutionary disintegration of the Empires and the emergence of Bolshevism and the monarchist counter-revolution in the former Russian Empire and Austro-Hungary, as the historical phenomena. The researchmethodology is based on Leopold von Ranke’s and John Tosh’s principles of historical study, Pitirim Sorokin’s and Oskar Jaszi’s revolution theories, Max Weber’s theory of state power, as well as theories of international relations, etc. The scientific novelty of this articleis the analysis of the phenomena of Bolshevism and the monarchist counter-revolution against the background of the dissolution of the Empires and change of the international order after the First World War. TheConclusions.The monarchist counter-revolution in Central and Eastern Europe emerged in Russia, Finland, and Hungary as a response to Bolshevism. The factors of the emergence of the monarchist counter-revolution were the following: the existence of strong monarchist traditions in the societies, the presence of the charismatic political and military leaders with monarchist views, and international military support (intervention) from the neighboring monarchies (the German Empire, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Kingdom of Romania). The peak of the monarchist counter-revolution in the former Russian Empire took place during the Brest-Litovsk system of international relations, where Germany played the dominant role. Consequently, the defeat of Germany in the First World War automatically led to the collapse of the Brest-Litovsk system and the monarchist counter-revolution in Russia. Although, the monarchist counter-revolution won in Hungary due to the Romanian intervention but the Kingdom of Hungary remained without a king because of the Allies’ pressure. So the monarchist Brest-Litovsk system was replaced by the republican Versailles system (in Eastern European case – Tartu-Riga system).
References
Ahtamzjan, A. (1963). Ot Bresta do Kilja. Proval antisovetskoj politiki germanskogo imperializma v 1918 godu [From Brest to Kiel. The Failure of Anti-Soviet Policy of the German Imperialism in 1918]. Moskva [Moscow]: IMO, 219 p. [in Russian]
Bernad, D., & Kliment,Ch. (2015). Magyar Warriors. The History of the Royal Hungarian Armed Forces, 1919 – 1945. (Vol. I). Solihull: Helion & Co. Ltd, 404 p. [in English]
De Daruvar, Y. (1974). The Tragic Fate of Hungary. München: Danubia-Druckerei, 236 p. [in English]
Diner, D. (2008). Cataclysms. A History of the Twentieth Century from Europe’s Edge. Madison: the University of Wisconsin Press, VIII+322 p. [in English]
Golovin, N. (2011). Rossijskaja kontrrevolyucija v 1917 – 1918 gg. [The Russian Counter-revolution in 1917 – 1918]. (Vols. I-II). Moskva [Moscow]: Ajris Press, Vol. I, 564 p., Vol. II, 708 p. [in Russian]
Grazhdanov, Yu., & Zimina, V. (1997). Soyuz orlov: Beloe Delo Rossii i germanskaya intervenciya v 1917 – 1918 gg. [The Alliance of the Eagles: the White Movement of Russia and the German Intervention in 1917 – 1918]. Volgograd: VAGS, 280 p. [in Russian]
Gromyko, A., & Hvostov, V. (Eds.) (1959). Dokumenty vneshnej politiki SSSR [The Documents on the USSR Foreign Policy].(Vol.1). Moskva [Moscow]: Gospolitizdat, 772 p. [in Russian]
Hiden, J., Made, V., & Smith, D. (Eds.) (2008).The Baltic Question During the Cold War. New York: Routledge, 212 p. [in English]
Hitchins, K. (2011). Ionel Bratianu. Romania. London: Haus Publishing Ltd, XIII+219 p. [in English]
Holodovsky, V. (1975).Finljandija i Sovetskaja Rossija 1918 – 1920 [Finland and Soviet Russia, 1918 – 1920]. Moskva [Moscow]: Nauka, 265 p. [in Russian]
Horthy, N. (2000). Memoirs. Safety Harbor: Simon Pub., 348 p. [in English]
Ioffe, H. (1977). Krah rossijskoj monarhicheskoj kontrrevoljucii [The Failure of the Russian Monarchist Counter-revolution]. Moskva [Moscow], 320 p. [in Russian]
Jászi, O. (1924). Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Hungary. London: P. S. King and Son, XXIII+236 p. [in English]
Jussila, O., Hentilä, S., & Nevakivi, J. (1999). From Grand Duchy to Modern State: A Political History of Finland Since 1809. London: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 398 p. [in English]
Jutikkala, E., & Pirinen, K. (1974). A History of Finland. London: Heinemann Ltd., IX+291p. [in English]
Kenez, P. (1971). Civil War in South Russia, 1918. The First Year of the Volunteer Army. Berkeley, & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 351 p. [in English]
Kinvig, C. (2006), Churchill’s Crusade. The British Invasion of Russia, 1918 – 1920. New York: Hambledon Continuum, XX+373p. [in English]
Kirby, D. (1979). Finland in the Twentieth Century. London: Hurst and Co., X+253p. [in English]
Kissinger, H. (1997). Diplomatija [The Diplomacy]. Moskva [Moscow]: Ladomir, 903 p. [in Russian]
Krasnov, P. (1991). Vsevelikoe Vojsko Donskoe [The Almighty Don Host]. Arxiv Russkoj revolyucii [The Archive of the Russian Revolution]. Vol. 5. (pp. 190–321). Moskva [Moscow]: Terra & Politizdat. [in Russian]
Lebedev, N. (Ed.) (1971). Istorija Rumynii 1918 – 1970 [The History of Romania, 1918 – 1970]. Moskva [Moscow]: Nauka, 742 p. [in Russian]
Lebedev, N. (Ed.) (1985). Ocherki politicheskoj istorii Rumynii (1859 – 1944) [The Essays on the Political History of Romania (1859 – 1944)]. Chișinău: Știința, 479 p. [in Russian]
Lupandin, O. (Comp.) (1999). Myrni peregovory mizh Ukrayins`koyu Derzhavoyu ta RSFRR 1918 r. Protokoly ta stenogramy plenarnykh zasidan’. Zbirnyk dokumentiv i materialiv [The Peace Negotiations between the Ukrainian State and the RSFSR, 1918. The Protocols and Transcripts of the Plenary Sessions. The Collections of Documents and Materials]. Kyiv, New York, Philadelphia: M. Kocz`, 368 p. [in Ukrainian]
Macmillan, M. (2003). Paris 1919. Six Months that Changed the World. New York: Random House, 624 p. [in English]
Malahov, V. (2005). Nacionalism kak politicheskaya ideologiya [Nationalism as a Political Ideology]. Moskva [Moscow]: KDU, 318 p. [in Russian]
Mannerheim, K. G. (1999). Memuary [Memoirs]. Moskva [Moscow]: Vagrius, 512 p. [in Russian]
Melgunov, S. (1929). Grazhdanskaya vojna v osveschenii P. N. Milyukova. (Po povodu “Rossiya na perelome”). Kritiko-bibliograficheskij ochrek. [The Civil War in Milyukov’s view. (On “Russia at a Turning Point”). The Critique-Bibliographical Essay]. Paris, 91 p. [in Russian]
Meri, V. (1997). Karl Gustav Mannerheim – Marshal Finljandii [Karl Gustav Mannerheim – the Marshal of Finland]. Moskva [Moscow]: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 208 p. [in Russian]
Milyukov, P. (1920). Bolshevism: an International Danger. Its Doctrine and Its Practice through War and Revolution. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 304 p. [in English]
Milyukov, P. (1925). Nacional'nyj vopros (Proishozhdenie nacional'nosti i nacional'nye voprosy v Rossii) [The National Question (The Origin of Nationality and National Issues in Russia)]. Praha [Prague], 193 p. [in Russian]
Milyukov, P. (1927). Rossiya na perelome: bolshevistskij period Russoj revolyucii [Russia at a Turning Point: the Bolshevik period of the Russian Revolution]. (Vol. II). Paris, 290 p. [in Russian]
Nelidov, N. (Comp.) (1929). Kolchak i Finljandija [Kolchak and Finland]. Krasnyi Arhiv – The Red Archive, 2(33), 82–144. [in Russian]
Ormos, M. (1990). From Padua to the Trianon, 1918 – 1920. Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 410 p. [in English]
Pipes, R. (1991). The Russian Revolution. New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc., 976 p. [in English]
Pipes, R. (1997). The Formation of the Soviet Union. Communism and Nationalism. Cambridge & London: Harvard University Press, 392 p. [in English]
Preda, D., & Prodan, C. (2012). Romania in WWI. A Concise History. Saarbrücken: Lambert Academic Publishing, 187 p. [in English]
Puntila, L. (1975). The Political History of Finland 1809 – 1966. London: Heinemann Ltd, 248 p. [in English]
Şişcanu, I. (2010). R.A.S.S. Moldovenească – o replică a Careliei sovietice execută de Kremlin (1924) [Moldavian ASSR – Karelian Soviet Republic as the Creatures of the Kremlin]. Analele Universității Dunărea de Jos din Galați – The Annals of the University of Lower Danube at Galati. Seria Istorie – History, 9, 145–162. [in Romanian]
Skoropadsky, P. (1994). “Ukraina budet!”. Iz vospominanij [“Ukraine Will Be!”. From the Memoirs]. Minuvshee – The Past, 17, 7–115. [in Russian]
Sorokin, P. (1925). The Sociology of Revolution. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., XII+428 p. [in English]
Svechnikov, M. (1923). Revoljucija i Grazhdanskaja vojna v Finljandii 1917 – 1918 gody. (Vospominaja i materialy) [The Revolution and the Civil War in Finland, 1917 – 1918. (the Memoirs and the Materials)]. Moskva [Moscow], Petrograd [Saint-Petersburg]: Gosizdat, IV+112 p. [in Russian]
Szilassy, S. (1971). Revolutionary Hungary, 1918 – 1921. Astor Park: Danubian Press, Inc, 143 p.
Torrey, G. (2011). The Romanian Battlefront in World War I. Lawrence: The University Press of Kansas, 440 p. [in English]
Trotsky, L. (2015). Mezhdu imperializmom i revolyuciej [Between the Imperialism and the Revolution]. Moskva [Moscow]: Direkt-Media, 249 p. [in Russian]
Vlasov, L., & Vlasova, M. (2005). Mannerheim i Pol’sha [Mannerheim and Poland]. Saint-Petersburg: Russkaja voennaja enciklopedija, 224 p. [in Russian]
von Wahl, E. (1936). Vojna Belyh i Krasnyh v Finlandiiv 1918 godu [The War between the Whites and the Reds in Finland in 1918]. Tallinn, 94 p. [in Russian]
von Wahl, E. (1937). Znachenie i rol' Ukrainy v voprose osvobozhdenija Rossii ot bol'shevikov na osnovanii opyta 1918 – 1920 gg. [The Significance and the Role of Ukraine in the Issue of Liberation of Russia from the Bolsheviks on the Basis of the Experience of 1918 – 1920].Tallinn, 72 c. [in Russian]
Zajcov, A. (2006). 1918: Ocherki istorii Russkoj Grazhdanskoj vojny [1918: the Essays on the History of the Russian Civil War]. Moskva [Moscow]: Kuchkovo pole, 368 p. [in Russian]
Zimina, V. (1989). Krah germanofil'skoj monarxicheskoj kontrrevolyucii na Yuge Rossii v gody Grazhdanskoj vojny i intervencii [The Failure of the Germanophilic Monarchist Counter-revolution in South Russia During the Civil War and the Intervention]. Kalinin: KGU, 87 p. [in Russian]
