EAST EUROPEAN HISTORICAL BULLETIN

WOMEN AND ISLAM IN THE MEDIEVAL AZERBAIJAN

Lala Aghamirze ALIYEVA — 2025-03-25

Islamisation, changing all spheres of public life in Azerbaijan, did not bypass the gender aspect. In all subsequent periods of the medieval era, the role of women in public and in everyday life was determined by the Islamic Sharia law. In addition, local national traditions also had their own special influence on the status of women. Purpose of the Research. The status of women in medieval societies exhibited both universal patterns and distinct regional variations shaped by religious beliefs and local customs. These historical influences have created enduring cultural models of womanhood that continue to resonate in contemporary societies. In Azerbaijan, the notion of an “ideal Azerbaijani woman” remains a powerful social construct, reflecting centuries of interplay between local traditions and Islamic values. This research examines how the intersection of pre-Islamic Azerbaijani customs and Islamic practices has shaped gender roles and expectations in Azerbaijan, with particular attention to the persistence of these historical influences in modern conceptualizations of feminine identity. By analyzing this cultural synthesis, the study aims at understanding how traditional and religious elements have contributed to current perspectives on gender in Azerbaijani society. Research Methodology. Aiming to study the impact of Islam and dogmas of this religion on the gender issue in the case of Azerbaijan, this article sets the objectives of research both in historical and cultural anthropological perspectives. In this regard, the research benefits from using methods of these fields, alongside Islamic Studies and Gender Studies. Based on an interdisciplinary approach, in this respect the study primarily relies on the comprehensive analysis of the studies by historians, philosophers, and theologians of the medieval period. Moreover, it considers wide-ranging studies from the contemporary period. Scientific Novelty. The role and status of women in Islam have been widely studied from historical and modern perspectives in the case of Middle Eastern countries. This paper is the first attempt to scrutinize this issue in the case of Azerbaijan. And being interdisciplinary, it contributes to various fields of study. Conclusions. The research findings demonstrate that women's roles in medieval Azerbaijan were multifaceted and nuanced, reflecting a complex interplay of Islamic principles, pre-existing cultural traditions, and contemporary socio-political dynamics. The historical synthesis of these influences created distinct patterns of feminine identity and social participation that continue to resonate in modern Azerbaijani society. This historical model of womanhood, characterized by both constraints and spheres of autonomy, remains influential in shaping current cultural expectations and gender norms in Azerbaijan.

Keywords: Islam, Women, Gender Issue, Medieval Azerbaijan, Medieval Scholars, Image of Woman.

PROFILE OF ENTREPRENEURS IN THE CLASSICAL AGE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE ACCORDING TO MUHIMME REGISTERS (1558 – 1597)

Yasin AKKUŞ — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the article is to uncover the profile of entrepreneurs in the Ottoman Empire's classical age. The Ottoman Empire's entrepreneurial history is usually considered as a single period and a whole. Without taking into account the archive data, evaluations illustrate the Ottoman Empire's entrepreneurial characteristics in the after 18th century. Muhimme records are supposed to provide crucial clues concerning the Ottoman Empire's entrepreneurship prior to the 18th century. The methodological basis of the research is content analysis with MaxQDA. The muhimme registers between the years 1558 – 1597 (according to hijri[1] calendar: 966 – 1005) were evaluated using content analysis. A total of 68 muhimme registers were examined and rated in areas of entrepreneurship, partnership, entrepreneur belief, and currency. Conclusions. In the study, strong conclusions are reached that Muslim Turkish entrepreneurs played an important role in the region in the mentioned period. According to the research, there are several reasons why the time between 1558 and 1578 in the muhimme registers are more intense than the period between 1579 and 1597. The Ottoman Empire and European countries (particularly Portugal and Spain) fought for political and commercial control in the Mediterranean and North African coasts from 1558 to 1578, which is perhaps the most important of these causes. According to the findings, statements that there were no or a small number of Muslim Turkish entrepreneurs in the Ottoman Empire throughout the era studied are false. On the contrary, evidence suggests that Muslim Turkish traders are engaged in brisk business in the MENA region, the Black Sea, and the Adriatic Sea. There are also indicators that the Muslim Turkish businesspeople named have a significant quantity of money. Given that the study in question merely gives a prognosis for the time period under consideration (1558 – 1597), muhimme registers are expected to offer numerous further research opportunities to academics interested in studying Ottoman entrepreneurs. Muhimme registers from the 17th and 18th centuries which were not included in the study because they were regarded outside the classical period, can be used as an example.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship; Muhimme Registers; Ottoman Empire; Classical Age; Content Analysis.

FORMATION OF THE ROMANIAN DIASPORA IN KAZAKHSTAN AS A RESULT OF THE RESETTLEMENT POLICY OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE AND THE SOVIET TOTALITARIAN REGIME

Yerlan JIYENALIYEV — 2025-03-25

In the XIXth and XXth centuries, the formation of the Romanian diaspora took place on the territory of Kazakhstan. It is an example of successful adaptation of a certain ethnic group representatives in a foreign cultural environment. The purpose of the research is to study the peculiarities of the process of adaptation of the Romanians in Kazakhstan in the pre-revolutionary era, in the early years of the Soviet power, during the period of deportation during and after World War II. The objective was to study the climatic, economic, domestic, socio-cultural adaptation of the Romanians in Kazakhstan during the above-mentioned periods of history. The principles of historicism, scientific objectivity, systematicity and comprehensiveness are the theoretical and methodological foundations of the research. In the study there have been used general scientific (analysis, synthesis, generalization) and special historical methods (comparative historical and bibliometric). The scientific novelty consists in the study of the process of adaptation of the Romanians in Kazakhstan after forced resettlement. The process of adaptation includes the construction of housing adapted to the natural and climatic conditions of Kazakhstan. Conclusions. The Romanian settlers became the founders of settlements in the Steppe region. Their participation in the economic life of Kazakhstan has been analyzed. One of the subjects of the study is the relationship between the settlers and the Kazakh population. Despite the prevailing historical circumstances, the Romanians were able to adapt to local conditions and make a definite contribution to the socio-economic development of the region. It should be stated that the Romanian diaspora of Kazakhstan, having taken root, has shown an example of successful adaptation of an ethnic group in a foreign cultural environment.

Keywords: Kazakhstan, Romanians, adaptation, migration, deportation, ethnos, diaspora.

ROMAN BAKHTALOVSKY (1897 – 1985), A PRIEST OF THE UNDERGROUND GREEK-CATHOLIC CHURCH: EVERYDAY LIFE THROUGH THE PRISM OF A CRIMINAL CASE

Igor RAIKIVSKYI — 2025-03-25

The purpose is to do the research on the possibilities of revealing the everyday life of a priest Roman Bakhtalovsky by studying the criminal case against him on September 13, 1949, by the Soviet law enforcement agencies. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, systematicity, scientificity, objectivity, and the application of source research methods, in particular the method of internal criticism of sources. Scientific Novelty. Criminal cases as a type of primary sources, despite their peculiarities (a strong subjectivity, individual inaccuracies, a low level of representativeness, certain arbitrariness of interpretation), contain a significant resource of factual data, thereby supplementing the source base on the history of everyday life. Conclusions. The testimonies of the defendants (in particular, Father Roman Bakhtalovsky), due to their “subjectivity,” require a careful comparison with other primary sources, including memoirs, eyewitness accounts of the events, periodicals of that historical era, memoranda, and diaries. At the same time, they contain facts that reflect the everyday life of not only R. Bakhtalovsky himself, but also of many clergymen of the period of the “catacomb” Greek-Catholic Church, shedding light on their biography, appearance, material security, ideological beliefs, communicative environment, mentality, etc. The investigation materials reflect the subjective nature of these interrogations, bias in the selection of witnesses, facts of a psychological pressure on clergy and lay people. The criminal case as a source contains facts of R. Bakhtalovsky's detention, the circumstances of his arrest by the Soviet special agencies, interrogations, examinations of his handwriting, decisions on bringing charges, a sentence, etc.

Key words: criminal case, Father Roman Bakhtalovsky, underground Greek-Catholic Church, historical monument, everyday life, Soviet special agencies.

PERPETRATORS OF WORLD WAR І IN THE INTERPRETATION OF EMPEROR WILHELM II HOHENZOLLERN: VERIFICATION OF THE HISTORICAL VERSION

Oleksandr NADTOKA — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the article is to verify the historical version of the German Emperor Wilhelm II Hohenzollern regarding the perpetrators of the outbreak of the World War І. The research methodology is based on the principle of basic expansion of the interpretive field of the issue under research, verification, content analysis, comparative historical and comparative lexical methods, quantitative method when using thematic statistical research. The scientific novelty of the study consists in the return to scientific circulation of the historical version of Wilhelm II Hohenzollern regarding the culprits of World War І and the verification of this concept based on the study of the memoirs of the last German emperor, memories and works of politicians and diplomats from Germany, England, France, as well as analytical works of the Russian General headquarters, contemporary press, published diplomatic documents and statistical data. Conclusion. In his memoirs, the former German Emperor Wilhelm II Hohenzollern presented “historical tables” that were supposed to prove the falsity of the accusations of Germany and Austria-Hungary in the outbreak of World War І. The key thesis is that the war for Germany, under the conditions of the united and overwhelming forces of the Entente, looked like a losing strategy. The analysis of indicators of military capabilities presented in the article confirms this thesis of Wilhelm Hohenzollern and proves the impossibility of conducting a successful long-term war against the overwhelming forces of the enemy in a situation of strategic encirclement by enemy countries from the West, East and North (the advantage of the British Navy). France and Russia appear in the memoir as the behind-the-scenes power and the executive power. Great Britain, unlike France, did not directly contribute to the growth of Russiaʼs military power. The personal sources we have examined, such as the memoirs of French and British politicians and diplomats, as well as the fact that Russia was the first major European country to start military mobilization and create a real threat of war against Austria-Hungary and Germany, encourage us to take a closer look at the German version of events. In the end, Germany chose the established practice of declaring war on countries that threatened it in order to legitimately start mobilizing in response to Russian mobilization efforts. It is significant that British politicians recognized the peace-loving, or at least non-aggressive, mood in Berlin on the eve of the war.

Key words: World War І, perpetrators, German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Russia, France, England, memoirs, historical tables, statistical data.

FEMALE FIGURES IN THE UKRAINIAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1917 – 1921 IN EXILE: WORK FOR THE FUTURE OF UKRAINE

Viktoriia VLASOVA — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the article is to reveal the information potential of the memoir heritage of the Ukrainian War of Independence 1917 – 1921 heroines for understanding their contribution to the Ukrainian cause abroad. Using the memories of these women, we can analyze their situation after the defeat of the Ukrainian–Soviet War, and determine exactly how they made their daily life in other countries. Also, the purpose of the article is to identify the success they achieved in the fields of their own professional activity, overcoming the difficulties of emigration. The research methodology is based on general scientific methods of analysis, synthesis, generalization. To analyze the sources of personal origin, the method of critical discourse analysis has been used. The method of sociological science, specifically biographical, has been also used. The study is based on a feminist and gender approach. The scientific novelty of the article consists in the following: for the first time there has been analyzed insufficiently studied aspect of the period of the Ukrainian War of Independence 1917 – 1921, particularly the contribution of women activists to the continuation of the Ukrainian issue in other countries. There have been found patterns, similarities and differences in the experience of female figures of the national liberation process who emigrated to different countries and continents. Based on the memoir heritage, for the first time there have been revealed and systematized the personal challenges that these women faced overseas. We have analyzed the way they overcame those complexities, what they did useful for the case of the Ukrainian state, and how they were implemented to their own professional activities. The Conclusion. The research is a promising area of studying aspects of the Ukrainian War of Independence 1917 – 1921. The collected facts about forced moving abroad from the memoirs of women participants in the national liberation process show their varied experiences, but also common features. The research shows that women continued their activities in favour of Ukraine after the rout in the Independence War, overcoming emigration complications and hoping for the revival of the state. The analysis of their contribution to this affair and highlighting their professional activities will enrich the study of the Ukrainian national liberation process 1917 – 1921.

Key words: Ukrainian War of Independence 1917 – 1921, Soviet-Ukrainian War, women's history, emigration, Ukrainian People's Republic, Second Hetmanate, Directory, Personal Records as Historical Sources

ACTIVITIES OF THE UKRAINIAN CANADIAN COMMITTEE DURING WORLD WAR II (1939 – 1945)

Vitalii KRUKOVSKYI — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the research is a comprehensive analysis of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee participation (UCC) in the Canadian federal government's campaign for war efforts aimed at moral and material support for the country's armed forces and the Ukrainian servicemen present there in order to bring about victory over Nazi Germany in World War II, and its struggle with the Ukrainian Society for Aid to the Motherland (USAM) and the Assossiation of Canadian Ukrainians (ACU). The methodological basis of the study is the principles of objectivity, historicism, consistency, and problem-based approach. In the research the following methods have been used: analysis and synthesis, problem-chronological, comparative, to study the role of the UCC and ACU in Canada's war efforts, as well as the method of internal criticism of sources. The scientific novelty consists in processing of a significant number of primary sources and scientific literature, which made it possible to analyze the forms and content of the UCC's campaign in support of the Canadian federal government's course on war efforts to defeat Nazi Germany in World War II and to compare the Ukrainian Canadian Committee and the Assossiation of Canadian Ukrainians in the context of the war and the Ukrainian issue. The Conclusions. The leadership of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee, together with its constituent and other public, youth, and cultural and educational organizations, from the moment of its founding in Winnipeg on November 6–7, 1940, conducted an agitation campaign among the youth of the Ukrainian diaspora of Canada by publishing declarations, communiqués, appeals in the press, announcing art evenings, performances, raffles and other events to collect donations for the needs of the Canadian Armed Forces, and rallied around itself all the “loyal elements” of the Ukrainian community in this country. The Ukrainian Canadian Committee supported the morale of 35,000–40,000 Ukrainian servicemen of the Canadian Armed Forces abroad, providing them with material and moral assistance. The contribution of Canadian Ukrainians and their leadership in the form of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee to the victory over Nazi Germany in World War II was highly appreciated by the Anglo-Canadian press, Canadian state and public figures, scientists, and all other friends of the country's Ukrainian community and its researchers. The participation of the Ukrainian Canadian Committee in the war efforts of the residence country of the Ukrainian diaspora contributed to the deep socio-political integration of the community into civilized Canadian society, instilled in its representatives self-confidence as full citizens at a fateful time for Canada and the world. Having held its first Congress on June 22–24, 1943 in Winnipeg, the main national patriotic representative organization of Canadian Ukrainians, countering the Soviet and Sovietophile propaganda, was able to establish itself as an authoritative body representing and defending the interests of Canadian Ukrainians before the federal government and the Canadian public.

Key words: the Ukrainian Canadian Committee, Assossiation of Canadian Ukrainians, Ukrainian Society for Aid to the Motherland, federal government of Canada, Canadian war effort, British Empire.

ILLEGAL MIGRATION OF JEWISH REFUGEES FROM POLAND TO THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION ZONE IN EUROPE IN 1945 – 1948

Volodymyr YUSHKEVYCH — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the research is to analyze the causes, dynamics, and consequences of the illegal migration of the Jewish refugees from Poland to the American occupation zone in Europe in 1945 – 1948, highlighting its political, social, and geopolitical implications. The research methodology is based on the principles of a concrete historical approach – historicism, objectivity, comprehensiveness, integrity and systematicity, as well as on the methods of analysis and synthesis, historical and comparative, problem-chronological methods. The scientific novelty of this research consists in its detailed analysis of how the illegal migration of the Jewish refugees from Poland to the American occupation zone shaped and was influenced by the U.S. policy during the post-war period. By analyzing archival materials and declassified intelligence reports, in the study there have been highlighted the strategic and humanitarian dimensions of American responses, including the interplay between refugee management, geopolitical interests, and the evolving stance on Palestine. This research provides new insights into how the U.S. policy adaptations to migration crises reflected broader objectives, revealing the intersection of domestic priorities and international diplomacy in the mid-20th century. Conclusions. The illegal migration of the Jewish refugees from Poland to the American occupation zone in Europe in 1945 – 1948 was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon shaped by the interplay of political, social, and economic factors. Key drivers included anti-Semitism, economic instability, and widespread disillusionment with the post-war political order, but the movement's motives and organization remain subjects of debate. While some migration was spontaneous, others suspected coordinated efforts by Zionist organizations or external actors, which prompted the U.S. authorities to launch investigations into the causes, motives, and nature of these flows. American intelligence agencies and counterintelligence units played a critical role, uncovering both humanitarian and political dimensions of the migration, as well as alleged collusion between certain organizations and the Soviet authorities.

In response, the U.S. government implemented specific measures, including the establishment of separate refugee camps, diplomatic negotiations with Allied powers, and policy adjustments to address the influx. Simultaneously, the issue of Jewish refugees intersected with the geopolitical future of Palestine, where their plight became a critical factor in the U.S. and British deliberations on the establishment of the Jewish state. The migration crisis not only underscored the urgency of resolving the Palestinian issue but also demonstrated how displaced people became a catalyst for broader shifts in international policy. Thus, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of post-war migration processes, the political and humanitarian strategies they inspired, and their enduring impact on global geopolitics.

Keywords: U.S. refugee policy, illegal migration, Jewish refugees, post-war Europe, American occupation zone, displaced people, Palestine issue.

MANIFESTATIONS OF THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE MONK COMMUNITY OF THE HLYNSKA HERMITAGE WITH THE SOVIET AUTHORITY AT THE END OF THE 1950s – THE BEGINNING OF THE 1960s.

Viacheslav OLITSKYI — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the article is to clarify the causes and nature of the conflict between the monastic community of the Hlynska Hermitage and the Soviet authorities at the end of the 1950s and the beginning of the 1960s, to study the forms of resistance of the monastic community and the reaction to them by state authorities, and to determine the consequences of this confrontation. The research methodology is based on the principles of objectivity and systematicity. To achieve the goal and objectives, general scientific methods have been used – analysis, synthesis, generalization, induction, deduction, as well as special methods of historical research – classification and criticism of sources, problem-chronological, comparative historical. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that for the first time, the manifestations of the conflict between the monastic community of the Hlynska Hermitage and the Soviet authorities on the eve of the monastery's closure have become the object of a separate scientific study. Conclusions. The monastic community of the Hlynska Hermitage used passive and active forms of resistance. Passive forms include assistance to pilgrims, provision of food, lodging, and failure to take measures recommended by the authorities to stop such assistance. A form of active resistance was the sabotage of Soviet elections, the refusal of individual monks to commemorate the Soviet regime during church services. This was prompted by an internal ethical and spiritual call, since praying for a godless regime that actively destroyed the Church and closed monasteries and temples seemed contradictory. The monks' resistance was spontaneous and unorganized, but in terms of ideological significance it was of serious importance to the authorities.

The authorities actively responded to any attempts by the monastic community to resist the established order, using various means of influence – from formal control to pressure and direct persecution of dissenting monks. The confrontation between the monastic community of the Hlynska Hermitage and the Soviet authorities had significant consequences for the monastic community, as a significant part of the monks were expelled, and the monastery itself was under constant surveillance.

Keywords: Orthodox Church, monastery, monks, clergy, Soviet government, repressions, Sumy region.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AND POLISH SOCIETY IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 20TH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 21st CENTURY: CULTURAL RELIGIOUS ASPECT

Olexandr BURAVSKY — 2025-03-25

Among the pressing issues of modern Polish society development, cultural and religious problems hold a prominent place. Traditionally, the cultural and religious realm has been the field of activity for the Roman Catholic clergy, which has achieved significant success in this domain. This article focuses on the study of the cultural and religious activities of the Roman Catholic Church (RCC) in the Polish society from the second half of the 20th to the beginning of the 21st century. The research methodology is grounded in the principles of historicism, objectivity, systematicity, and scientific rigor, as well as the utilization of general scientific methods such as analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, comparison, and generalization, on a socioculteral approach. During the processing of the source base, methods of historical cultural and analytical analysis, criticism, and periodization, classification and typologization have been applied. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that a new conceptual vision of the cultural and religious activities of the RCC in the Polish society in the second half of the 20th – to the beginning of the 21st centuries has been proposed, its main directions have been outlined, and its impact on society and on the rise of the national consciousness of the Poles has been characterized. Conclusions.Throughout the second half of the 20th to the beginning of the 21st century, the RCC served as a bearer of national consciousness, preserving language, cultural traditions, and historical memory. The cultural and religious influence of the church on Polish society was significant in shaping moral values. Its influence on education, art, and public behaviour contributed to the maintenance of traditional values and the establishment of ethical norms. Religious education, the Roman Catholic press, became key factors in the cultural and religious life of the Polish society. The RCC adapted to new social realities. It maintained its position in the spiritual life of society while also seeking answers to new challenges and aiming at becoming a modern centre of spirituality and moral improvement. It is argued that amidst the social changes at the beginning of the 21st century, brought about by the fall of the communist regime, there was also a decline in popular support for the church.

Keywords: Roman Catholic Church, Polish society, Republic of Poland, cultural religious activity, religious education.

ROLE OF LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL SECURITY STRATEGY IN UKRAINE (1991 – 2014)

Ivan VYHIVSKYI — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the study is to analyze the current legislation of Ukraine in the context of the system formation for ensuring national security of Ukraine, to identify the role of law enforcement agencies in building the national security strategy, and to study the main areas of legal regulation of the law enforcement agencies activities in this area. The Methodology of the Research. In the study there have been used general scientific and special methods, in particular, owing to the historical legal method, the conceptual principles in interpreting the concept of national security and law enforcement agencies have been revealed, the legislation has been analyzed; systemic structural and formal logical methods have been applied. The scientific novelty: the areas of activity of law enforcement agencies as subjects of the national security system of Ukraine have been analyzed, and the directions of state policy implementation in this area have been outlined. The Conclusions. Based on the analysis of the legislation of Ukraine during the period of 1990 – 2014, it has been stated that the national security system is a set of subjects of ensuring national security, which united common goals regarding the interests of the state and society. The fundamental state-forming documents of the 1990s outlined a set of identical concepts related to national security. The specification of threats in the field of national security, and therefore the creation of more effective directions of state policy, took place at the beginning of the 2000s and the adoption of the first two National Security Strategies in 2007 and 2012. However, their excessive declarativeness, terminological overload partially improved the practical activities of security subjects. The activities of law enforcement agencies in this area are mainly the protection of citizens' rights and freedoms, the state and public interests from unlawful encroachments, ensuring security. It has been determined that during the specified period, the activities of law enforcement agencies in the field of national security required coordination of various branches of legislation, the adoption of special legislation. It has been noted that such specific steps towards developing a new national security strategy with a clearer and more systematic regulatory framework took place after 2014: a number of innovations were adopted that update the systemic development of security and defense sector, which also include law enforcement and intelligence agencies.

Keywords: law enforcement agencies, national security, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Security Service of Ukraine, entities ensuring national security.

CREATION OF THE FIRST PRIVATE MILITARY AND SECURITY COMPANIES IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION (1998 – 2013)

Leonid KRYVYZIUK — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the research. The author set himself the aim of researching and revealing the creation of the first Russian private military and security companies at the end of the 1990s, as a modern mercenarism phenomenon of previous generations. The research methodology is based on the general scientific principles of objectivity, systematicity and historicism. In the research there have been used general scientific methods: logical, analysis, synthesis, periodization and the others, as well as special methods of historical research: historical and genetic, historical and comparative, chronological. The scientific novelty of the obtained results consists in the comprehensive analysis of the creation process of the first private military and private security companies in the Russian Federation from the end of the 1990s to the beginning of the 2000s, their tasks, geography of activity, peculiarities of training and motivation of mercenaries. Conclusions. After analyzing the recent research and publications, it has been determined that the first among Russian private military and security companies at the end of the 1990s there were established “Orel-Antiterror”, “RIK”, “Ferax”, Moran Security Group, “RSB-Groupp”, Vega, “Slavyansky Corps” and “Wagner”. Private military and security companies became a very promising and attractive business. In fact, they became a tool in the hands of pro-government Russian oligarchic groups to satisfy their business interests both domestically and abroad. The emergnce of such structures has significantly expanded the ability of the Russian Federation to project its influence through military means in different regions of the world, in particular in Ukraine since 2014 and since 2015 in Syria, using hybrid influence and methods that the state cannot officially use. Private military companies were controlled by the Russian special services and staffed mainly by ex-servicemen from various power bodies and who had combat experience. Training of mercenaries was carried out in training centres and on military training grounds. Open or covert support of mercenaries, in particular financial, was provided by the state. The motivational factor for mercenaries was financial mainly.

Key words: mercenarism, mercenary private army, private military company, private security company, Russian mercenaries.

MEMORIAL LEGISLATION OF EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: BETWEEN ETHNOPOPULISM AND MNEMONIC SECURITY

Kostiantyn IVANGORODSKY — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the research is to identify the main directions of memorial legislation development in Eastern European countries at the present stage, in particular, in the context of determining its functioning in the coordinates of the ethnopopulist rhetoric growth of the respective political regimes and clarifying the degree of mnemonic security, which we could come across in the memorial legislation. Scientific Novelty. Regarding the idea that memory management in contemporary politics has important ramifications for the retreat from democracy, the Eastern European region offers food for thought. At the same time, the analysis of the Russian, Polish and Ukrainian legislative regulation of historical memory emphasizes that the “wars of memory” are unfolding as proxy wars for modern state identities and the sense of the states security as actors of a special kind. Eastern Europe has become the “main laboratory” for studying the interrelationships between law and memory since the mid-2000s. Memory wars have broken out in the Russian-Ukrainian-Polish triangle, and historical politics, including memory laws, have become the weapon that regimes consciously relied on in their propaganda. The countries in the region have struggled for the mnemonic acknowledgment in the global social hierarchy of remembrance of the major historical events, as evidenced by their memorial laws. Conclusions. Due to determining the main directions of functioning in the mnemonic space of Europe regarding memory laws in the countries of its eastern part, it is feasible to bring up their striking difference from the generally accepted policy of memory in the EU. The tangible ethno-populist rhetoric is considered to be one of the controversial issue, which is inherent in such memorial legislative acts. On the other hand, the example of modern Ukraine, which is in a state of fierce and hostile war with Russia, allows us to realize the powerful potential of the mnemonic security of such legislation more deeply.

Key words: Eastern Europe, memorial legislation, memory laws, historical politics, historical memory, ethno-populism, mnemonic security.

POLISH-UKRAINIAN RELATIONS IN 2014 – 2022: MILITARY DIPLOMATIC VECTOR OF COOPERATION

Orest KRASIVSKYY — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the research is to clarify the Polish-Ukrainian relations formation in the context of the foreign policy concepts of the Republic of Poland and the conditions of the process of activating Ukraine’s European integration, Russia’s war against Ukraine since 2014. The methodology of the research is based on the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity in assessments. There have been used the problem chronological, logical, deductive and inductive methods. The Scientific Novelty. There have been outlined the main principles of the Polish foreign policy in the article, taking into account the geopolitical concepts developed in previous decades, in particular the modernized ideas of Giedroyc, the “Jagiellonian” and “Piast” doctrines. The role of Ukraine in these geopolitical regional concepts has been analyzed. The system of the military political interaction between Ukraine and Poland within the framework of the trilateral regional alliance “The Lublin Triangle”, the joint military formation “LitPolUkrBrig”. There have been considered various levels of political and military cooperation between Ukraine and Poland in the context of countering the armed aggression of the Russian Federation after 2014, military and technical assistance of the Republic of Poland from 2014 to 2023. The Conclusions. Intensification of the Polish-Ukrainian relations took place at the turn of 2013 – 2014 in the context of Euromaidan, the Revolution of Dignity, and the Russian armed aggression in 2014. During the period of 2014 – 2022, Poland provided significant support to Ukraine at the bilateral and international levels. The establishment of good-neighbourly relations and military political assistance to Ukraine was implemented by Poland through the prism of implementing the “Intermarium” concept, and later the “Three Seas Initiative”, which reflect a broader geopolitical doctrine that takes into account the historical past and the desire to become one of the dominant powers in Central and Eastern Europe. Since 2015, after the victory of Andrzej Duda in the presidential elections, the parliamentary elections of Jarosław Kaczyński, and even more intensively since 2017, Poland has been abandoning a unilateral policy oriented towards the West. Instead, Poland is implementing a policy of integration of EU member states located between the Adriatic, Baltic, and Black Seas. That is, the interwar project “Intermarium” in the context of the new European geopolitical configuration is transforming into the “Three Seas Initiative” – “Three Seas”. It is worth noting that the security sphere remained a priority in the Polish policy, as evidenced by a number of initiatives, including the creation of the Lithuanian-Polish-Ukrainian Brigade (“LitPolUkrBrig”); joint military training, “the Lublin Triangle” project. A set of measures that contribute to strengthening military cooperation between states, mastering advanced technologies and training standards of the Armed Forces of Ukraine is extremely important in the context of the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in February of 2022 and the threat of further aggression in the region. Therefore, Poland increased its assistance to Ukraine in the military, financial, and humanitarian spheres significantly. From mid-2022 to early 2023, it became the second country after the United States in terms of the scale of military assistance to Ukraine.

Key words: Ukraine-Poland, Polish-Ukrainian relations, Jerzy Giedroyc’s postulates, “Jagiellonian” and “Piast” doctrines, the concept of “Intermarium”, “Lublin Triangle”, Lithuanian-Polish-Ukrainian Brigade ("LitPolUkrBrig"), security issues, countering Russian aggression, cooperation in the field of defense, military and technical and humanitarian assistance to Poland.

SCHOOL HISTORY EDUCATION IN THE TEMPORARY OCCUPIED TERRITORIES OF UKRAINE (2014 – 2022): IDEAS OF “RUSSIAN WORLD” AGAINST THE CONCEPT OF THE UKRAINIAN STATE

Polina BONDARENKO — 2025-03-25

The purpose of the article is to analyze the course “History of Motherland” at schools on temporary occupied territories of Donetsk region. On the basis of the overview of syllabus contents in general and the stages of Ukrainian state-building in particular, the authors have highlighted a manipulative nature of syllabus and identified hybrid threats as consequences of its applying. Research Methodology. The authors make conclusions considering the fact that school education has a huge impact on shaping the worldview and mounding opinions of a person. The study is based on civilizational and anthropocentric approaches, the method of content analysis has been applied. Scientific Novelty. An attempt to analyze the content and purpose of historical education at secondary schools on the temporarily occupied territories of Donetsk region has been made in historiography of Ukraine for the first time. Conclusions. Teaching History in the occupied territories is an important component of the Russian propaganda aiming at forming the Russian identity among young people. By twisting past events students are convinced that they are part of “Russky mir” (Russian world). Primarily, it refers to elimination of the events, connected with Ukrainian state formation, as well as the lack of information about national rebirth and national identity which is supposed to be the basis of the Ukrainian modern nation formation. Moreover, the Ukrainian past of Donetsk region is either hidden or distorted in favour of Putin’s ideology which creates a complete rejection of their own history and Ukrainian identity among young people. As a result, anti-Ukrainian nature of the educational course aims at eliminating their own historical memory among students and impose a new made-up one which is beneficial to Russia.

Taking into consideration the above mentioned, today one of the main tasks of the Ukrainian historians is to find the ways to combat Russian information propaganda as school History course in the temporarily occupied territories can definitely be classified as information-propaganda tool of Russia’s hybrid warfare against Ukraine.

Key words: school history education, temporarily occupied territories, hybrid threats, “Russky mir”, historical instrumentalization, civilizational approach.

A NEW STAGE OF HISTORIOGRAPHIC UNDERSTANDING OF THE UKRAINIAN REVOLUTION PHENOMENON (the peer-review on the monograph: Oleksandr Reyent, Volodymyr Velykochy. The Ukrainian Revolution: Modern National Historiographical Discourse. Kyiv, Ivano-Frankivsk: Publishing House “Misto NV”, 2024. 396 p.)

Oleksandr UDOD — 2025-03-25

the peer-review on the monograph: Oleksandr Reyent, Volodymyr Velykochy.
The Ukrainian Revolution: Modern National Historiographical Discourse.
Kyiv, Ivano-Frankivsk: Publishing House “Misto NV”, 2024. 396 p.

HISTORIOSOPHICAL DIMENSION OF DEPORTATION PROCESSES ON THE TERRITORY OF THE UKRAINIAN-POLISH BORDERLANDS IN 1944 – 1951 (the peer-review on the monograph: Artemyshyn Yu. Deportation Actions of the 1940s in the National Memory of the Ukrainians: State and Prospects of Research : monograph / NAS of Ukraine, I. Krypiakevych Institute of Ukrainian Studies. Lviv, 2023. 276 p.)

Lesya KRAVCHENKO — 2025-03-25

the peer-review on the monograph: Artemyshyn Yu. Deportation Actions of the 1940s
in the National Memory of the Ukrainians: State and Prospects of Research : monograph /
NAS of Ukraine, I. Krypiakevych Institute of Ukrainian Studies. Lviv, 2023. 276 p.

CURRENT CONFLICT OF IDENTITIES ON THE UKRAINIAN-RUSSIAN BORDERLAND (peer-review on the collective monograph: Vermenych Ya. V. The Ukrainian-Russian Borderland in the Space of Identities Conflict in History and Modernity / Editor in-Chief V.A. Smolii. Kyiv: Institute of History of Ukraine, NAS of Ukraine, 2024. 331 p.)

Halyna HRYTSENKO — 2025-03-25

peer-review on the collective monograph: Vermenych Ya. V. The Ukrainian-Russian Borderland in the Space of Identities Conflict in History and Modernity / Editor
in-Chief V.A. Smolii. Kyiv: Institute of History of Ukraine, NAS of Ukraine, 2024. 331 p.